Communicative Language Teaching And Communicative Competence

Communicative Language Teaching And Communicative Competence Hymes pointed out that those rules are the knowledge of the rules of socio-cultural communication with others; how, what, where, when and in what aspect language is spoken in a proposed society. Therefore, according to Chomsky it can be described as the knowledge of the grammatical and speech rules of a language and the ability to use these rules in the away that does not deviate from the native-speakers style to use the language. Hymes, however declared that this definition is not appropriate and, instead, he suggested that effective performance is not the result of linguistic competence given by Chomsky, but by knowledge of the rules of the socio-cultural communication too, and hence communicative competence is actually what results in appropriate performance. Hymes theory took the attention of many syllabus designers to adopt on communicative competence. For instance, Canale and Swain, suggested models for classroom teaching using Hymes views. Van Ek and Alexander (1975), and Wilkins (1976) presented the Notional Syllabus. This syllabus is distinguished by its attention to functions and notions as applications of Hymes views. Curriculum writers like Widdowson (1978,1979), Munby (1978), Breen and Candlin (1980), Littlewood (1981), Brumfit and Johnson (1983), Yalden (1983) Johnson, applied Hymes views and devised communicative teaching materials based on these views (Richards and Rodgers, 2001). The CLT has been widespread based on Hymes views occurred in the 1970s. It has established as an approach in the field of language teaching, in which the four language skills (reading, listening, writing and speaking) are correlated appropriately, comprehensively and communicatively. This way of teaching defers it from the other teaching methods as for it engages the teachers and students, along with and the materials working as one component towards the use of language as one unit. Lindsay (2006: 21) points out that it could be said that the communicative method is a result of linguists satisfactory with the traditional methods as these methods put little, if any, emphasis on the ability to communicate or interact. However, Richards Rogers (1986: 50) pointed out that Communicative Language Teaching is best considered as an approach rather than a method. Also, Rogers (2001: 9- 10) made a distinction between methods and approaches: methods are teaching systems with prescribed techniques and practices, but approaches deal with language teaching philosophies that can be implemented in the classroom in different styles. Widdowson (1990: 159) explained that the communicative approach concentrates on getting learners to do things with language, to express concepts and to carry out communicative acts of various kinds. The content of a language course is now defined not in terms of forms, words and sentence patterns, but in terms of concepts, or notions, which such forms are used to express, and the communicative functions which they are used to perform. Richards Rogers (1986: 49) stated that the theory of teaching underlying the Communicative Approach is holistic rather than behaviouristic. It starts from a theory of language as communication, which implies knowledge of the grammatical system as well as performance. Also, Aqel (2006) pointed out that the aim of this Communicative approach is to prepare students for meaningful communication, where errors are tolerated. The amount of exercises and activities involved with a communicative approach is not restricted and connected with the constructivist theory of learning. George (1999: 16-17) pointed out that Constructivism is basically a theory based on observation and scientific study about how people learn. It says that people construct their own understanding and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences. This means that the students effectively create their own subjective representations of objective reality. In addition, the teacher in communicative approach is not the centre of all classroom activities as the focus is mainly directed towards the learners (p. 22). Lantolf (2000) called the communicative methodology and constructivist theory of learning activity theories. It means that teachers and students have to interact and reconstruct socially with ideas and knowledge. (pp. 12-13). 2.2 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Communicative Competence (CC) The difference between CLT and traditional teaching methods, like the grammar translation method (GTM) and the audio- lingual method (ALM), is that the CLT approach mainly focuses in teaching and learning a language. The basic goals of teaching using the CLT approach is not rather its structure but communicative function (Littlewood, 1981; 1998). That is, the main goal of teaching and learning a language is to improve students communicative competence (Li, 1998). Thus, theoretically, it is useful to understand and introduce what is communicative competence, before understanding CLT. 2.2.1 Communicative Competence: In the 1970s, many researchers distinguished between linguistic and communicative competence (Hymes, 1967; Paulston, 1974) to point out the difference between the knowledge of the language forms and knowledge that help learners communicate functionally and interactionally. According to Savignon (1997: 272) Communicative Competence is: functional language proficiency; the expression, interpretation, and negotiation of meaning involving interaction between two or more persons belonging to the same (or different) speech community. In addition, Savignon divided communicative competence as having the following elements; 1) communicative competence is a dynamic, but not a static concept. It depends on the negotiation of meaning between two or more learners who share to some extent the same symbolic system; 2) communicative competence involved in both written and spoken language, as well as to many other symbolic systems; 3) communicative competence is context specific. Communication takes place in an infinite variety of situations, and success in a particular role depends on ones knowledge of the context; 4) competence and performance defers theoretically. Competence is defined as a presumed underlying ability whereas performance as the overt manifestation of that ability. Competence is what one knows. Performance is what one does and 5) communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants (p. 14-15). Savignon has worked on communicative competence, and her work is known and considered in the field. However, Canale and Swain (1980) presented the four- area framework of knowledge and skill regarding communicative competence. They declared that communicative competence involves grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence. Then Canale (1983: 7) pointed that grammatical competence focuses directly on the knowledge and skill required to understand and express accurately the literal meaning of utterances. Sociolinguistic competence refers to the learners ability to use the language appropriately in social contexts. Therefore sociolinguistic competence shows the learners ability to go beyond the literal meaning of utterances and recognize what is the intent of such utterances in particular social situations. In addition, Canale (1983: 8) says that sociolinguistic competence is important in explaining utterances for their social meaning. It is important to acknowledge that communicative competence is a major aspect of CLT, and teachers are said to understand its many aspects. 2.2.2 Communicative Language Teaching: Researchers and linguistics have focused on the shift from the language to communication. Brumfit (1988) referred to communication as a task to be performed,

Cabbage vs. Lettuce

Not knowing the difference between the two is enough to irritate ere, and mistaking them for the other is a whole different level of anger and f rustication that could possibly awaken from a pet peeve. It was important enough for her to make a whole blob post on the subject. Natural curiosity got the best of me as I then began to research the e differences and similarities of these vegetables. Tang 2 Cabbage and lettuce are actually from two sign efficiently different plant families to begin with.From first glance it is slightly difficult to immediately tell which of the Greg en's it is in a dish because of how similar their colors and shapes are when cut, cooked, and pre eared. Starting off with the cabbage, according to Bruce of weeklies, it comes from the brassier CAE family of flowering plants otherwise known as mustard flowers or the cabbage family. Other welkin species within the family include broccoli, cauliflower, radish, and turnips. Cab pages are often in the form of a dec ently large, round flower bud of leaves.It looks similar to its notorious cousin, the Brussels sprout, but only more sizable. The cabbage leaves are compact, the kick, dense, and fibrous, so it is not as easy to bend anywhere or else it would break in half. W hen grown at a arm or at home, cabbages grow in a whole flower formation With extensive Ii eaves encircling the middle. To harvest it, people naturally cut the cabbage Stem at the base, leave Eng the large outer leaves still intact to the stem, to collect the middle bud. As for lettuce, they come from the assistance family, also known as the sinful rower family.The other welkin species within assistance include chrysanthemum m and artichokes. Lettuce commonly share a similar small cone shape with the artichoke, but the eye can come In a more sphere shape like the cabbage, as seen with the iceberg lettuce. The lea eves are more flexible around the outer parts but a bit thicker along the middle, so it can be utilized as a wrap fo r some dishes. They can also be easily separated by simply pulling each leaf apart. When harvested, the whole lettuce plant is either dug up or cut off near the soil.As a result, the main aesthetic differences to note are the shape before and oaf term harvesting, and the thickness or compactness of the leaves' composition. How ever, they do not only differ aesthetically but also in taste and smell. The lettuce has a much high her water content Tang 3 Han cabbages, and that gives it the refreshing feel when bitten into. Consensus entry, having a high water content, lettuce cannot be easily preserved through freezing canning, o r drying. On the bright side, that means it is also served fresh and majority of the time.Sadly, c Babbage may have a bitter taste and smell to them when either raw or cooked, but that does not stop us from making great dishes with them. On account of the previous stated facts, each vegetable serves its own special place in cooking. Majority of lettuce is eaten raw in salads and sandwiches, or used as Arians like cilantro on tacos. The reason for not using lettuce in cooking is mainly due to I TTS high water content. Cooking it in some ways may give some undesirable results such as b Ewing too soggy.Chime is a common Korean recipe that serves as a fermented vegetable side dish with multiple seasonings that utilizes cabbages often. The cabbage is able to maintain its cry mushiness and absorb flavors through its density. The same could go for other dishes such a s the popular coleslaw. If you were to substitute the cabbage shreds with lettuce, the texture e of the meal would to have the chunky and crunchy feel, but a more wet and soft texture through hoot. Although, cabbages may win in cooking versatility, it does not render the lettuce as been g inferior.Going past the cooking and looking into the nutrition facts, the natural coma session of both the cabbage and lettuce speak for their nutrition. With the greater density y, the cabbage pac ks the higher calorie and dietary fiber count at nearly three times the ammo aunt the same serving of lettuce can provide. Each of the greens are also great sources of vitamin A ( helps maintain lathe vision, white blood cells, and skin tissue), vitamin C (helps maintain he althea skin, bones, metabolism, and immune system), and potassium (assists with protein for blob odd and bones).

Police stress Essay

Introduction Stress is a psychological factor and a common feature of almost every kind of work. But it is important to note that it was only in the mid-70s that industrial psychologists focused their attention on the importance of stress in the workplace. â€Å"To serve and protect,† is the law enforcers’ motto as he works to accomplish the goals of his job which is primarily to provide protection to the citizens of his state. There accompanies with the work the kind of people whose shady and dark characters pursue the primary purposes in life which are to commit a crime and study ways to evade the long arm of the law. In policing work, stress is not underestimated but rather an important and critical aspect of the job (â€Å"it goes with the territory,† so to speak); stress comes in different forms. It is a given then, that police work is pictured as a form of service where the challenges are not the same as the regular kind of job; more so when the person is in active post or duty and expected to meet the most difficult types of experiences but usually on a regular basis. It is this scenario that this paper explores and presents to the reader the nuances of the job, the stresses a police officer regularly encounters, possible consequences on his personal and home life, as well as probable interventions. Significance of the study Two reasons are suggested why there was a growing recognition of the importance of stress on the job. First, there is the general awareness that stress-related diseases have reached epidemic proportions. More people die or are disabled today as a result of stress than at any other time. Because stress is so physically damaging and pervasive in people’s lives and because it is primarily psychological in nature the discipline of psychology as a whole and especially the specialty area of health psychology is interested in studying and treating stress and other psychosomatic disorders (Chang et al. 2006). The second reason for the growing awareness of the importance of stress at work is practical. The effects of stress on the job are costly and are reflected in a lower productive efficiency. Stress has been known to reduce drastically employee motivation and the physical ability to perform the task well thus, increasing absenteeism, turnover, and tardiness (Cahill 2003; Chang et al. 2006; Williams 2003). Statement of the Problem What is stress at work and how is this demonstrated in a particular individual worker like the police officer? What has personality trait or individual differences do with the development of stress as well as how do people cope with stress when the source is the place of work? This paper attempts to define, describe and explain the nature of stress, factors that contribute to the development of stress in an individual, and in particular what job stress or stress in the workplace can do to an individual. Discussion ~ The Nature of Stress Inside the body, dramatic physiological changes take place under stress. Adrenalin, released from the adrenal glands, speeds up all bodily functions. Blood pressure rises, heart rate increases, and extra sugar is released to the bloodstream. The increased circulation of the blood brings additional energy to the brain and muscles, making us more alert and stronger sp that we can cope with the sudden emergency (Landy 1985). A stressful situation mobilizes and directs one’s energy beyond its normal level. But if a person remains in that state of supercharged energy for too long, the body’s reservoir of energy will dissipate. Rest is needed to replenish the energy supply (Williams 2003). Prolonged stress leads to psychosomatic disorders. Remember that psychosomatic diseases are not imaginary. They are real and involve specific tissue and organ damage even though their cause is psychological. In prolonged stress, the body may suffer physiological damage and the person may become ill (Landy 1985). A. Individual Differences in Vulnerability to Stress One factor that affects vulnerability to stress on the job is social support, one’s network of social and family ties. The person who is alone physically and psychologically is more vulnerable to stress than someone who has strong social relationships. Social support on the job is also important to reduce stress and to have better health (Cahill 2003; Chang et al., 2006; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). One’s physical condition also relates to one’s vulnerability to stress effects. Persons in better physical condition suffer fewer effects of stress than those in poor physical condition (Cahill 2003; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Level of ability to perform a job can make people more or less resistant to the stresses of that job. Employees with a high level of the skills needed for the job finds the work easier and less stressful than employees with a lower ability (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Personality seems to be related to one’s ability to tolerate stress. This is particularly apparent with those of apparent with those of Type A and Type B personalities and their susceptibility to heart disease, one of the major effects of stress (Landy 1985). The Type A personality is highly prone to heart disease by middle age, independent of physical factors or their type of work. The two primary characteristics of a Type A personality are a very high competitive drive and a constant sense of urgency about time. Type A personalities are hostile people although they successfully hide it from others. That is why Type A personalities are always in a state if tension and stress (Landy 1985; Williams, 2003). Persons with the Type B personality never have heart attacks before the age of 70, regardless of their jobs or their eating and smoking habits. Type B people may be just as ambitious as Type A people, but they have none of their characteristics. They function under far less stress in all aspects of life including work (Landy 1985). B. Stress at work There are occupations that are considered very stressful. The following twelve are those that engender highest levels of stress: law enforcer, labourer, secretary, inspector, clinical lab technician, office manager, first-line supervisor, manager or administrator, waiter or waitress, machine operator, farm worker, miner, painter. This is taken from the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Other occupations considered to be in high stress are the fire fighters, computer programmer, dental assistant, electrician, fire fighter, social worker, telephone operator, and hairdresser (Landy 1985). Survey is also found that among working women, the most stressful jobs are in the health care industry. For example, nurses, medical, dental, and lab technicians and social workers (Cahill 2001). Psychologists renamed the concept of overwork into the term overload and have identified two types: 1. Quantitative overload 2. Qualitative overload Quantitative overload is the condition of having too much work to do in the time available. Qualitative overload involves not so much work to do but work that is too difficult (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Another stress factor in the workplace is change. Many changes occur in the workplace. The introduction of a new work procedure may require employees to learn and adapt to different production methods (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Performance appraisal is a source of stress for a great many people. Few people like the idea of being evaluated whether at school or work. An employee’s role in the organization can be a source of stress. Role ambiguity arises when the employees’ work role is poorly structured and ill-defined. Role conflict arises when there is a disparity among the demands of a job and the employees, personal standard and values (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Problems of career development may lead to stress at work. Stress can arise when an employee fails to receive an anticipated promotion (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Being responsible for other people is a major source of difficulty for some supervisors and managers (Landy 985).   Contact with a stress carrier is also a cause of stress. A person free of stress can be infected by someone who is highly stressed (Landy 1985). Assembly-line work has been associated with stress because it is characterized by repetition and monotony (Landy 1985). Overall, then, each person must confront and deal with a large and recurring number of stress-producing events everyday both at home and at work. Although most people experience at least some of the harmful effects of stress at one time or another, most people, fortunately, do manage to cope (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). One effect of stress on the job resulting from overwork is called burnout. The employee becomes less energetic and less interested in the job. He or she becomes emotionally exhausted, apathetic, depressed, irritable, and bored; finds fault with everything about the work (Cahill 2003; Chang et al, 2006; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Figure 1.0 National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health Model of Job Stress (Source: NIOSH, http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html) Burnout develops in three distinct stages: 1. Emotional exhaustion, with a feeling of being drained and empty (Cahill 2003; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). 2. Cynicism and the lack of sensitivity toward others (Cahill 2003; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). 3. Futility, the feeling that all the effort put forth previously was wasted and worthless (Cahill 2003; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Employees with burnout become rigid about their work, following rules and procedures blindly and compulsively because they are too exhausted to be flexible or consider alternative solutions to a problem (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). There is a price to pay for such overwork over a long period of time. Stress accumulates and leads to the psychological and physiological ailments described earlier. These people work so hard that they burn away their energy faster than the body can replace it. Such persons have been described as workaholics, or employees addicted to work (Cahill 2003; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Nature and Dangers of Police Work Studies done by Malloy and Mays (p 177 1984) point to the importance of understanding the kind of job that policing involves. The authors not only examined the stress levels within the workplace but a comparative study was made as well with the amount of stress experienced by law enforcement officers and other workers in other organizations or institutions particularly in government entities. The findings show that few jobs can equal the kind of stress that police work entails; fire fighters may come close though the frequency of negative or distressful events or occurrences become a regular fare for law enforcers contributing to the overall danger and threat to their personal well-being. Reports of suicide or attempted suicide have reportedly been high despite increasing awareness to the stresses of the job (Brown 2008). Symptoms may be there already but the few people close to the person refuse to recognize or identify the signs. These include irritability, lowered sex drive, digestive upsets, fatigue, muscle aches like backaches, insomnia or restlessness, overeating or drinking too much, muscle tics or rashes, a pounding heart, headaches and light-headedness may be evident on the individual. Cardiovascular disease, diabetes, or mental health issues can be some of the effects when prolonged stress is experienced and may even affect the immune system’s ability to protect the person’s body from everyday illnesses. Because an officer regularly deals with stress and anguish experienced by people they meet on the job, emotions can easily be bottled up, or set aside and compromise one’s health or in many instances, affect the officer’s ability to deal with the issues and problems in his own personal and family life.   Studies self-management skills program for the police officers show that there is a great difference when police officers go through programs that help them understand the emotional upheavals that go with the job. There was the reduction of signs and symptoms of imminent distress or physical and psychological manifestations of stress (McCraty et al 1999). Other techniques specifically used in other studies make use of films as tools to help debrief these individuals (Mann 1973 p 63). C. Interventions and organizational techniques The techniques for dealing with stress on the job involved both the prevention of stress and its reduction and elimination. Techniques that individual employees can practice on and off the job include relaxation training, biofeedback, and behavior modification. Some methods provided by organization include altering the organizational climate, providing employee assistance programs and treating victims of stress-related illnesses (Cahill, 2003; Landy, 1985; Williams, 2003). Industrial/organizational psychologists have proposed several organizational techniques for managing stress at work especially with police work: 1. Emotional Climate Control. Because of the stressors of modern organizational life is change, the organization must provide sufficient support to enable employees to adapt to change. This can be accomplished by providing a climate of esteem and regard for employees and by allowing them to participate in all decisions involving change in their work and in the structure of the organization (Chang et al. 2006; Landy 1985; Williams 2003). 2. Provision of social support. Social support can reduce one’s vulnerability to stress. Organizations can enhance social support by facilitating the cohesiveness of work groups and by training the supervisors to be supportive of their subordinates (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). 3. Redefinition of employee roles. To reduce the stress caused by role ambiguity, managers must clearly state to their subordinates what is expected of them and what the precise scope and responsibilities of their jobs are (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). 4. Elimination of work overload and work underload. Proper selection and training, equitable promotion decisions and fair distribution of work can do much to eliminate these causes of stress. 5. Provision of assistance to stressed employees. More and more organizations today are recognizing the harmful effects that stress can have on employee health and productivity. As a result, they are providing in-house counseling programs that teach individual stress-control techniques and supplying facilities for physical exercise (Landy 1985; Williams 2003). Some stress is necessary for normal functioning. The nervous system apparently needs a certain amount of stimulation to function properly. But stress that is too intense or prolonged can have destructive physiological and psychological effects. The actions of autonomic nervous system that prepare the organism for emergency can, if prolonged lead to such physical disorders as ulcers, high blood pressure, and heart disease. Severe stress can also impair the organisms’ immune responses, decreasing its ability to fight off invading bacteria and viruses. It is estimated that more than half of all medical problems are believed to be related to emotional stress. Psychosomatic disorders such as allergies, migraine, headaches, high blood pressure, heart disease, ulcers and even acne are among the illnesses that are related to emotional stress (Hilgard, et al., 1983). Conclusion Frustrations occur when progress toward a goal is blocked or delayed and when two motives conflict, satisfaction of one leads to the blocking of the other. For as long as a human individual is alive and functioning in whatever milieu he is in, these forces are at work, often straining and draining him. Coping and defense strategies oftentimes become indispensable but later become debilitating for most if no longer controlled and regulated. The severity of stress depends on the situation’s predictability, the potential for control, the individual’s cognitive evaluation, his feelings of competency, and the presence of social supports (Halonen and Santrock, 1996). Works Cited: Atkinson, R.L., R.C. Atkinson, E.E. Smith, D.J. Bem, and S. Nolen-Hoeksema, Introduction to Psychology, 13th ed. (1993). New York: Harcourt College Publishers. Brown, Hal. Introduction to Police Stress. Accessed February 27, 2008 Cahill, C. A. 2001. Women and stress. In Annual Review of Nursing Research, 19, 229-249. Chang, E. M., Daly, J., Hancock, K.M., Bidewell, J. W., Johnson, A., Lambert, V. A., & Lambert, C. E. 2006. The Relationships Among Workplace Stressors, Coping Methods, Demographic Characteristics, and Health in Australian Nurses. Journal of Professional Nursing, 22(1), 30-38. Landy, F.J. 1985. Psychology of Work Behavior. 3rd Ed. Dorsey Press. Malloy, Thomas E., G. Larry Mays. â€Å"The Police Stress Hypothesis: A critical evaluation. Criminal Justice and Behavior. 11 (1984): 197-224. Sauter, Steven, et al., â€Å"Stress at Work† NIOSH publication. Retrieved December 20, 2007 http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/stresswk.html Williams, C. 2003. Stress at Work. Canadian Social Trends, Autumn, 7-13. Halonen, J.S. and J.W. Santrock. 1996. Psychology: Contexts of behavior, Dubuque, IA: Brown and Benchmark, p.810. Hilgard, ER, RR Atkinson, and RC Atkinson, 1983. Introduction to Psychology. 7th ed., New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanich, Inc. Mann, Philip A. â€Å"Stress Training.† In Psychological Consultation with a Police Department: A Demonstration of Cooperative Training in Mental Health, by Philip Mann, 62-64. Springfield Illinois; Charles C, Tomas, (1973). McCraty, Rollin, Dana Tomasino, Mike Atkinson, Joseph Sundram. â€Å"Impact of the HeartMath Self-Management Skills Program on Physiological and Psychological Stress in Police Officers.† Institute of HeartMath, Publication No. 99-075. Boulder Creek, CA. (1999). Morris, Charles G. & Albert Maisto, 1999. Understanding Psychology. 4th ed. Prentice Hall, Inc. P. 73.

Jacques Maritain s Philosophy Of Nature Essay - 1837 Words

We live in a world where contemporary science has taken a powerful clench as the sole means of satisfying our hunger for knowledge of all things. But what exactly is science? To define something we most often have to state its boundaries, just like how you know the province of British Columbia by its borderlines. Furthermore, what happened to the philosophy of nature? What fundamental role does it play in our quest for knowledge? I will attempt to answer these questions by defining philosophy of nature and the contemporary sciences and how they relate to each other as detailed in Jacques Maritain’s Philosophy of Nature. To understand the philosophy of nature, we must define the three ways our mind abstracts or conceptualizes knowledge; Maritain calls it the three degrees of abstractive visualization. At the first degree we have â€Å"being as subject to change† (Maritain 13). The mind abstracts from singular sensible matter, matter that is changeable, and leaving behind certain aspects like its location, colour, and size to know what it is. For example, looking upon a tree, the mind leaves behind its whereabouts and wants to get at what it is – namely, treeness. At the second level of abstraction, the mind knows being as quantity or mathematical knowledge. This notion must use matter but it can be conceived without sensible matter (13). For example, you see a pizza and you can conceive of a circle with two cuts you will have four slices. Now, you can abstract thatShow MoreRelatedEssay on A Philosophy of the Impersonal5155 Words   |  21 PagesFor a Philosophy of the Impersonal 1. Never more than today is the notion of person the unavoidable reference for all discourses, be they philosophical, political, or juridical in nature, that assert the value of human life as such. Leaving aside differences in ideology as well as specifically staked-out theoretical positions, no one doubts the relevance of the category of person or challenges it as the unexamined and incontrovertible presupposition of every possible perspective. This tacit convergence